THE DOPAMINE SYSTEM:

Dopaminergic pathways:

• Ventral tegmental area (VTA) projections

• VTA → Amygdala

• VTA → Cingulate cortex

• VTA → Hippocampus

• VTA → Ventral striatum (Mesolimbic pathway)

• VTA → Olfactory bulb

• VTA → Prefrontal cortex (Mesocortical pathway)

• Nigrostriatal pathway

• Substantia nigra pars compacta → Dorsal striatum

• Tuberoinfundibular pathway

• Arcuate nucleus → Median eminence

• Hypothalamospinal projection

• Hypothalamus → Spinal cord

• Incertohypothalamic pathway

• Zona incerta → Hypothalamus

• arousal (wakefulness)

• aversion

• cognitive control and working memory (co-regulated by norepinephrine)

• emotion and mood

• motivation (motivational salience)

• motor function and control

• positive reinforcement

• reward (primary mediator)

• sexual arousal, orgasm, and refractory period (via neuroendocrine regulation)